The 3D-model of play
Different kids like to play differently
All children play or show an interest in playing. While it seems to come naturally for most of them, children with a disability face numerous barriers while playing. Difficulties in physically carrying out play, understanding or applying rules, sharing ideas or taking turns with peers, anxieties or a busy schedule full of rehabilitation activities can all play a role.
To build a playground that suits every child, the different needs must be recognised and barriers removed. Although most children develop more or less along a similar path, children with a disability will experience delays or limitations in various aspects of play. The combination of their skills will lead to a different ability or interest in certain types of play. This way, each playground component will be usable or interesting for a certain group of children. With this knowledge, playground planners can select a balanced mix of equipment to make sure all children find something that fits their needs. A single playground component will never be perfectly accessible, useable and challenging for every child. But by offering variation and actively addressing issues, we can ensure that as many children as possible find what they are looking for. If the environment is well designed, all children will enjoy playing.
3D model of play
In general, play activities evolve in stages, from solitary sensory-motor play to social and imaginative games-with-rules. At the same time, all different modes of cognitive play occur together with all the sensory-motor and social play modes. This connection between the three dimensions is shown in the 3D-model of play. This model is based on the common development of children and the associated modes of play. You can read more about this in our article about Inclusive play.
The 3D-model of play can be visualised as a 3x3x3 cube. While growing up, children will move step-by-step to different positions in the grid. For regular children, the different dimensions develop simultaneously, while children with disabilities will not follow the regular path. Especially at the bottom of the model, you’ll see large differences between children.
Of course, the 3D-model is not meant to put children in boxes. In fact, the model should be interpreted more like a spectrum of infinite development possibilities. Children cannot be pigeonholed but can develop in different directions at different speeds. By splitting up the spectrum into the 27 variations, we try to make the model a bit more manageable.
The first axis in the model is that of sensory-motor development level. It follows a path from the ability to perform simple movements (crawling, walking, climbing steps) to the ability to perform more complex movements (climbing a spatial climbing net, sliding down a fireman’s pole, running over a balance beam).
The second axis relates to social-emotional development and the social levels of play as described by Mildred Parten: starting with solitary play, through parallel and onlooker play to associative and cooperative play.
The third axis refers to the three cognitive development phases, according to Jean Piaget's theory, which more or less coincide with the evolution of the different types of cognitive play: the sensorimotor period (0-2y) in which practice play predominates, the pre-operational period (2-7y) that aligns with symbolic/constructive play, and the concrete and formal operational period (7+y) where (structured) play with rules takes shape.
6 remarkable areas in the 3D-model
The 3D-model of play contains six notable sub-areas. Some of these zones refer to the classification of disabilities. As mentioned, all zones form a spectrum that describes the variation in needs and wishes of different children. Within each zone, there are large differences between children and their individual abilities may be affected by various functional limitations. At the same time, there is a considerable overlap between the zones and the forms of play linked to them. This provides opportunities for interplay and participation. A rich and varied playground consists of equipment in which all the zones are integrated.
The starting point: the lower end (purple)
The purple zone at the bottom of the model is where all children start. It's the zone where the three dimensions begin to develop. It includes all children up to 2 to 3 years old and children of any age with a severe or complex disability that affects all three dimensions of development (like children with cerebral palsy or spina bifida). The infrastructure is usually low to the surface and requires aids and supporting elements such as handrails and ramps. There should be a walking and riding area with passages wide enough for wheelchairs on and around the equipment. Children in this zone often know no danger and need a lot of proximity, so safety and supervision are very important.
 | Play in this zone: simple motor movements | Play infrastructure in this zone: swing seats with extra body support |
The middle zone (orange)
In the middle we find the intermediate development level. This zone describes regular children between about 3 and 7 years old. It corresponds to what is currently usually available on a classical playground. Larger playgrounds often also have an area for smaller children, but most equipment is aimed at children with this skill level.
| Play in this zone: moderately complex movements | Play infrastructure in this zone: regular swing seats (also double swing bays for parallel swinging) and nest swings |
The final point: the far end (yellow)
The zone at the far end of the model is where regular children from about 7 years onwards evolve to. It is dominated by playing together with friends and taking on new challenges. Children in this zone often still use basic play equipment, but with different use-scenarios. They look for new challenges (such as climbing to the roof) or use the infrastructure as a setting for their own complex social games (such as 'the floor is lava' on a slackline).
| Play in this zone: complex motor play | Play infrastructure in this zone: large climbing frames and pyramid nets |
The sensory-motor zone (lime green)
This zone describes children from the age of about 3 years old, who only have a developmental delay or disorder in the sensory-motor dimension and a relatively regular development in the other dimensions. These are, for example, children with a sensory impairment (visual, auditory), paraplegia, an impairment in one or more limbs or difficulty coordinating certain parts of their body (muscle tension, spasticity, balance problems) but who can still follow a regular school curriculum.
A rideable playing surface, wheelchair wide passages under and between the infrastructure and wheelchair transfer zones help users with a wheelchair or walker. Users with stability or balance problems benefit from handrails on both sides of a passageway, stable footrests or large steps on a ladder. For users with paraplegia or limb impairment, an upwardly sloping crawling surface or a series of transfer steps can be provided. Towers can be equipped with alternative entrances and exits to provide opportunities for children with different abilities.
Children with visual impairments often like to play with sound generating devices (such as musical instruments) or elements with a tactile surface (such as textures and grains, hot/cold, vibrations). Play equipment, passageways and entrances should be provided with visibility markings or tactile guidance features. Colour combinations should show a strong contrast (such as yellow or orange against sky blue) and be applied in function of safety and usability. Choose a simple colour scheme, as many different colours can be visually confusing or emotionally overwhelming.
| Play in this zone: simple motor movements (or more complex ones with extra support) | Play infrastructure in this zone: play towers with motor adaptations |
The social-emotional zone (sky blue)
The blue zone is for children with a divergent social-emotional development, but a more regular motor and cognitive development. These include children with high functioning autism, ADHD or other behavioural disorders.
The intention to play alone is particularly strong for children on the ASD spectrum, but children with a hyperactivity disorder also like to romp around without having to specifically interact or consult with others. Play is sometimes constructive, but rather not symbolic.
Individual play can be quiet or active, depending on the preference of the children. For active play, you need to leave the necessary space between or next to the equipment. For quiet play, you can work with small, enclosed spaces and hiding spots between or under other equipment, where children can take a moment to isolate themselves alone or in pairs.
| Play in this zone: moderate to complex motor play | Play infrastructure in this zone: snoozle spaces, playhouses or hiding spots |
The cognitive zone (magenta)
This is the zone for children from the age of 3 years old, with lower cognitive abilities but with regular motor or social-emotional skills. These are, for example, children with Down Syndrome, cognitive impairments or learning deficits. In the cognitive dimension, children in this zone tend to stay at practice play level, which means that the aim of the games is focused on the physical movement or the sensory-motor experience, rather than on the symbolic, creative-constructive or social aspect. This fits in quite well with the equipment that is already present in most playgrounds and is aimed at sensory-motor experiences (sliding, swinging …). These devices require less specific cognitive skills but sometimes require motor or social coordination. Specific to this zone is that children play longer with the basic equipment, while growing beyond the body size and weight for which the equipment is usually designed. Larger and stronger equipment can be used.
Children with lower cognitive skills may have difficulties understanding certain aspects of playgrounds, seeing hazards or communicating with others. Possible improvements include adding an information board with a floor plan and pictograms showing emotions and actions, dividing the playground into zones for different play styles using coloured elements, providing space or furniture that allows carers to stay close and using play coaches to guide the children.
| Play in this zone: moderate to complex motor play | Play infrastructure in this zone: XL swing seats |
How to use the 3D model in the design of inclusive playgrounds
An inclusive playground is a space that caters to all children equally. Offering a balanced mix of equipment is the key to achieve this goal in practice. Designers can use the 3D model to analyse the variation of playground equipment. Every playground, no matter how small, should contain a number of elements for the different zones in the model. The rule of thumb is that for every 2-4 regular play components, one play component should be offered that matches one of the other zones. An analysis can focus on just one playground but can also include several smaller playgrounds within a district or town.
| Number of regular play components (yellow or orange zone) | Number of inclusive play components | |||
| ‘Starter’ zone (purple) | Low motoric zone (lime-green) | Low cognitive zone (magenta) | Low social-emotional zone (sky blue) | |
| 1-4 | 1 | |||
| 5-8 | 1 | 1 | ||
| 9-12 | 2 | 2 | ||
| 13-16 | 2-3 | 2-3 | ||
| 17-20 | 3-4 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| … | … | … | … | … |
Play for the sake of play
While many companies in the play sector promote equipment for children with disabilities as beneficial for their development, we focus on the pleasure of playing for the sake of playing. Play happens naturally as children grow up, and play develops along with the children. We develop our products from the perspective of the child and the play value of each piece of equipment.
The 3D model of play isn’t meant to focus on the advantages that certain equipment has on the development of children. It is intended as a tool to diversify the range of play equipment and gives an indication of the skills children need to use and enjoy certain equipment independently. It provides an incentive to offer a diverse range of equipment while allowing children the freedom to choose their own favourite adventures.
To get to know which KBT products fit each zone and types of play, check out our article about play value.
About the authors:
Filip Gerits and Yves De Keuster are designers and researchers specialised in design and safety of activity toys and play infrastructure. For this topic we were happy to count on the indispensable support of a range of experts, children and parents with experience in the field of inclusive play. We especially like to thank Kathleen Op De Beeck - specialised in occupational therapy and inclusive education at AP – university college in Antwerp, Belgium – for her input and enthusiasm.
Many of the ideas and concepts in this article have been checked against published scientific sources and research. The researchers, projects and publications listed below are recommended sources for further reading.
- Helen Lynch, Alice Moore – 2019 – Community Parks and Playgrounds: Intergenerational Participation through Universal Design
- Ines Wenger, Christina Schulze, Ulrica Lundström & Maria Prellwitz – 2020 –Children’s perceptions of playing on inclusive playgrounds: A qualitative study
- Serenella Besio, Daniela Bulgarelli, Vaska Stancheva-Popkostadinova – 2017 – Play Development in Children with Disabilities
- P4Play – European Joint Doctorates programme in Occupational Science for Occupational Therapists – p4play.eu
- Susan Herrington – 2006 – The design of landscapes at child-care centres: Seven Cs
